Chidren’s Literature Essay

Children’s literature (also called juvenile literature) consists of the stories (including in books) and poems which are enjoyed by or targeted primarily at children. Modern children’s literature is classified in different ways, including by genre or the intended age of the reader. Children’s literature has its roots in the stories and songs that adults told their children before publishing existed, as part of the wider oral tradition. Because of this it can be difficult to track the development of early stories. Even since widespread printing, many classic tales were originally created for adults and have been adapted for a younger audience. Although originally children’s literature was often a re-writing of other forms, since the 1400s there has been much literature aimed specifically at children, often with a moral or religious message. To some extent the nature of children’s fiction, and the divide between older children’s and adult ficti on became blurred as time went by and tales appealing to both adult and child had substantial commercial success. There is no single, widely accepted definition of children’s literature. It can be broadly defined as anything that children read, but a more useful definition may be fiction, poetry, and drama intended for and used by children and young people, a list to which many add non-fiction. Nancy Anderson of the College of Education at the University of South Florida defines children’s literature as all books written for children, â€Å"excluding works such as comic books, joke books, cartoon books, and nonfiction works that are not intended to be read from front to back, such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other reference material†. Classifying children’s literature is equally confusing. As the International Companion Encyclopedia Of Children’s Literature says, â€Å"The boundaries of genre†¦ are not fixed but blurred.† Sometimes no agreement can be reached even on whether a given work is best categorized as adult or children’s literature, and many books are marketed for both adults and children. J. K. Rowling’s series about Harry Potter was written and marketed for children, but it was so popular among children and adults that The New York Times created a separate bestseller list for children’s books to list them. When people think of children’s literature they probably mean books, or at least print. But narratives existed before printing, and the roots of some best-known children’s tales go back to storytellers of old.Seth Lerer, in the opening of Children’s Literature: A Reader’s History from Aesop to Harry Potter, says â€Å"This book presents a history of what children have heard and read†¦ The history I write of is a history of reception†. Classification Children’s literature can be divided a number ways. Two useful divisions are genre and intended age of the reader. By genre A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by technique, tone, content, or length. Anderson lists six categories of children’s literature, with some significant subgenres:[8] * Picture books, including concept books (teaching an alphabet or counting for example), pattern books, and wordless books. * Traditional literature, including folktales, which convey the legends, customs, superstitions, and beliefs of people in past times. This genre can be further broken down into myths, fables, legends, and fairy tales. * Fiction, including fantasy, realistic fiction, and historical fiction. * Non-fiction. * Biography and autobiography. * Poetry and verse. By age category The criteria for these divisions are vague and books near a borderline may be classified either way. Books for younger children tend to be written in very simple language, use large print, and have many illustrations. Books for older children use increasingly complex language, normal print, and fewer, if any, illustrations. * Picture books, appropriate for pre-readers or ages 0–5. * Early reader books, appropriate for children age 5–7. These books are often designed to help a child build his or her reading skills. * Chapter book, appropriate for children ages 7–12. * Short chapter books, appropriate for children ages 7–9. * Longer chapter books, appropriate for children ages 9–12. * Young-adult fiction appropriate for children age 12–18. Illustration Children’s stories have always been accompanied by pictures. A papyrus from Byzantine Egypt shows illustrations accompanying the story of Hercules’ labors. Today children’s books are illustrated in a way that rarely occurs in adult literature in the 20th or 21st century, except in graphic novels. Generally, artwork plays a greater role in books intended for the youngest readers (especially pre-literate children). Children’s picture books can be an accessible source of high quality art for young children. Even after children learn to read well enough to enjoy a story without illustrations, they continue to appreciate the occasional drawings found in chapter books. According to Joyce Whalley in The International Companion Encyclopedia of Children’s Literature, an illustrated book differs from a book with illustrations, in that â€Å"a good illustrated book is one where the pictures enhance or add depth to the text. Using this definition, the first illustrated children’s book is considered Orbis Pictus by the Moravian author Comenius. Orbis Pictus had a picture on every page, followed by the name of the object in Latin and English. It was translated into English the year after it appeared, and was used in homes and schools around Europe and Great Britain for years. Early children’s books like Orbis Pictus were illustrated by woodcut, and many times the same image was repeated in a number of books regardless of how appropriate the illustration was to the story.[7]:322 Newer processes, including copper and steel engraving began being used in the 1830s. One of the first uses of Chromolithography, a way of making multi-colored prints, in a children’s book was Struwwelpeter, published in Germany in 1845. English illustrator Walter Crane refined its use in children’s books in the late 1800s. Walter Crane’s chromolithograph illustration for The Frog Prince, 1874. Another illustration method appearing in children’s books was etching, used by George Cruikshank in the 1850s. By the 1860s top artists in the west were illustrating for children, including Crane, Randolph Caldecott, Kate Greenaway and John Tenniel. Most pictures were still black-and-white, and many color pictures were hand colored, often by child labor.[1]:224-226 The Essential Guide to Children’s Books and Their Creators credits Caldecott with â€Å"the concept of extending the meaning of text beyond literal visualization†. In India Nandalal Bose, whose paintings are considered artistic treasures, illustrated books for children from the late 1800s into the 1900s. The early Twentieth-century brought more highly regarded illustrators to the pages of children’s books. Artists like Kay Nielson, Edmund Dulac and Arthur Rackham produced illustrations that are still reprinted today.[1]:224-227 The development in printing capabilities found itself reflected in children’s books. After World War II offset lithography became more refined, and by the 1950s painter-style illustrations like Brian Wildsmith’s were common.[1]:233 History According to Aspects and Issues in the History of Children’s Literature from the International Research Society for Children’s Literature, the development of literature for children anywhere in the world follows the same basic path. All children’s literature, whatever its current stage of development, begins with spoken stories, songs and poems. In the beginning the same tales that adults tell and enjoy are adapted for children. Then stories are created specifically for children, to educate, instruct and entertain them. In the final stage literature for children is established as separate from that of adults, having its own genres, divisions, expectations and canon. The development of children’s literature is influenced by the social, educational, political and economic resources of the country or ethnic group. Before 50 BC Every people group has its own mythology, unique fables and other traditional stories told for the instruction and entertainment of adults and children. The earliest written folk-type tales include the Panchatantra from India, composed about 200 AD, it may be â€Å"the world’s oldest collection of stories for children†,though other sources believe it was intended for adults. The Jakatas, stories from India about the birth of Buddha, go back to the second or third centuries BC A few of these stories, particularly those where Buddha took the shape of an animal, would have been enjoyed by children. The source stories for The Arabian Nights, perhaps also originally from India, have also been traced back this far. As an example of oral stories that certainly would have been enjoyed by children, the tale of The Asurik Tree goes back at least 3,000 years in Persia, now Iran. The greatest ancient Greek poet, Homer, lived sometime between 1200 BC and 600 BC. Author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, Homer’s work contributed to the development of all Western literature, including that for children. Between 750 and 650 BC Hesiod told stories that became a major source of Greek mythology. Irish folktales can be traced as far back as 400 BC. These stories of witches, fairies and magic spells were preserved by storytellers traveling across the island. For centuries Ireland’s geographic isolation helped preserve them. 50 BC to AD 500 Papyri from the 400s AD tell versions of Aesop’s fables. In Imperial China, children attended public events with their parents, where they would listen to the complicated tales of professional story-tellers. Often rhyming, the stories were accompanied by drums, cymbals and other traditional instruments. Children would also have watched the plays performed at festivals and fairs. Though not specifically intended for children, the elaborate costumes, acrobatics and martial arts would have held even a young child’s interest. Smaller gatherings were accompanied by puppet shows and shadow plays. The stories often explained the background behind the festival, covering folklore, history and politics. Story-telling may have reached its peak during the Song Dynasty from 960-1279 AD. This traditional literature was used for instruction in Chinese schools until the Twentieth-century. Greek and Roman literature from this age is thought to contain â€Å"nothing that could be considered a children’s book in the sense of a book written to give pleasure to a child†.[15] However, children would have enjoyed listening to stories such as the Odyssey and Aesop’s Fables, since Aesop and Homer, along with the Greek playwrights were â€Å"at the heart of early reading and writing†[7]:37 in Greece at this time. 500-1400 The Panchatantra was translated from Sanskrit into Kannada in 1035 AD. The first children’s book in Urdu may be Pahelian by the Indian poet Amir Khusrow, who wrote poems and riddles for children in the 1200s-1300s.[1]:814 Buddhism spread in China during the early part of this period, bringing with it tales later known as Journey to the West. Chinese children would have enjoyed many of these stories of â€Å"fantasy, the supernatural, demons and monsters.†[1]:832 There are two schools of thought about children and European Medieval literature. The first developed from the writings of Philippe Arià ¨s in the 1960s and holds that, because children at this time were not viewed as greatly different from adults, they were not given significantly different treatment. Those holding this point of view see no evidence of children’s fiction as such existing in Europe during the Middle Ages,[17] although they recognize that instructional texts in Latin were written specific ally for children, by clerics like the Venerable Bede, and Ælfric of Eynsham. Those who disagree with Arià ¨s make several arguments, explained by Gillian Adams in her essay Medieval Children’s Literature: Its Possibility and Actuality. One is that just because a culture does not view childhood as modern Western societies do does not mean children’s literature cannot develop there. Another is that modern Western scholars have defined literature for children too narrowly, and fail to acknowledge what does exist. for example, they point to Marie de France’s translation of Aesop’s fables, and the Play of Daniel from the 1100s. Daniel Kline, in Medieval Literature for Children says modern and Medieval literature for children have common goals: â€Å"conveying the values, attitudes, and information necessary for children and youth to survive or even advance within their cultures.† Kline divides children’s literature in Europe during this time into five genres: Didactic and Moral, Conduct-related, Educational, Religious, and Popular. The debate on interpretaion aside, scholars cite this period as the time as when â€Å"many of the genres that continue to feature in writing for children emerge.†[21]:10 Examples of literature children would have enjoyed during this time include Gesta Romanorum, the Roman fables of Avianus, the French Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry and the Welsh Mabinogion. In Ireland many of the thousands of folk stories were being recorded in the Eleventh and Twelfth centuries. Written in Old Irish on vellum, they began reaching through Europe, influencing other folk tales with stories of magic, witches and fairies. 1400s During the Byzantine Empire the Bible and Chritian hymns and stories were popular. The takeover of Greece by the Ottomans meant the enslaved Greeks had to rely on songs, lullabies, and other easily shared methosds of cultural preservation. According to Vassilis Anagnostopoulos in The International Companion Encyclopedia of Children’s Literature, these verses constitute the first children’s poetry. An early Mexican hornbook pictured in Tuer’s History of the Horn-Book, 1896. Hornbooks appeared in England during this time, teaching children basic information such as the alphabet and the Lord’s Prayer. In 1484 William Caxton published Aesop’s Fables, followed by Le Morte d’Arthur in 1485. These books were intended for adults, but enjoyed by children as well. Geoffrey Chaucer’s writings were retold for children by the late 1400s, and often European printers released versions of Aesop’s Fables in their native languages. 1500s Russia’s earliest children’s books, primers, appeared around this time. An early example is ABC-Book, an alphabet book published by Ivan Fyodorov in 1571. The first Danish children’s book, The Child’s Mirror by Niels Bredal in 1568, was an adaptation of a book of courtesy for children by the Dutch priest Erasmus. Finland had Abckiria, a primer released in 1543, but very few children’s books were published there until the 1850s. A Pretty and Splendid Maiden’s Mirror, and adaptation of a German book for young women, became the first Swedish children’s book upon its 1591 publication. In Italy Giovanni Francesco Straparola released The Facetious Nights of Straparola in the 1550s. Called the first European storybook to contain fairy-tales, it eventually had seventy-five separate stories and was written for an adult audience. Giulio Cesare Croce also borrowed from stories children would have enjoyed for his books. Chapbooks, pocket-sized pamphlets that were often folded instead of being stitched, were published in Britain and spread to the United States. Illustrated by woodblock printing, these inexpensive booklets reprinted popular ballads, historical retellings and folk tales. Though not specifically published for children at this time, they would have been enjoyed by them. Johanna Bradley in From Chapbooks to Plum Cake says that chapbooks kept imaginative stories from being lost to readers under the strict Puritan influence of the time.

Edward Scissorhands Question Sheet

Discussion Questions on Edward Scissorhands As you watch the movie you will need to take notes to answer these questions. The purpose of this film is to get you ready for the next role we will look at in depth which is that of the artistic designer. You need to consider the needs of the director and work with set designers, costuming and other professionals in the film industry for this job. I would like a rough copy of your answers to these questions to be given to the teacher at the end of Friday’s class. 1. a The entire neighborhood is constructed, describe the colors used in the neighborhood scenes? . b What could be the desired effect in this use of color? 2. As the woman drives up to the haunted house there is background music playing. What is the desired effect of this music? Describe two other places in the film where the soundtrack or film score affected your viewing of that scene. 3. How does the costuming set the main character, Edward apart from the other community members and why do you think Edward is meant to be so visually different? How does this help the actor portray his role? 4. What is Tim Burton (Director) saying about the nature of conformity in this film?How does he use color and visual imagery to drive home this point? 5. Is Edward a tragic figure? Why or why not based on the outcome of the film. 6. What are some of the highlights, twists and turns of the story? Create a brief treatment for this film and hypothetically cast the roles of three characters in the film. Explain why you choose them for these roles. 7. Research online what people Tim Burton consistently works with for his productions and list three here. Discuss why creatively this might be important for a Director.

Brazilian Independence

Brazilian Independence A critical review of â€Å"The Cambridge History of Latin America (From Idependence to c. 1870), By Leslie Bethell In this paper I will explain and highlight main arguments of Brazilian independence according to Leslie Bethell. The Brazilian independence was certainly not as violent as in the other Latin American countries and the independence was a final product of many events and influences.I will go through the economic situation Brazil was facing in terms of export and imports, followed by the installment of Portuguese Dom Joao in Rio de Janeiro, because of the Napoleon wars going on in Europe at the time and finally concluding on what finally gave Brazil independence in 1822. Economically, Brazil was major compared to its colonizer, Portugal. Brazil had the population the area and the natural resources to become a success, which they definitely was, but with a Portuguese exploitation of exports and population.Portugal was highly dependent on Brazilian exp orts and had a hard time providing Brazil with manufactured goods, an element Britain had a major role in. Brazil exported and still exports massive amounts of sugar to Portugal and later on, coffee and cotton became an important export, not to forget gold from Minas Gerais. It was basically hard for Portugal to justify the occupation of this new land of opportunities. The creation of a national identity that would help Brazilians to gain independence was definitely an important factor to the process.Some claim that the victory over the Dutch in 1654 was a major input and inspiration for the Brazilians. The Brazilian education and information system was although not on Brazilian territory and the minority of people that could afford it went to Europe for university. The economic, political and intellectual situation, led to massive criticisms due to the mercantile systems, its restrictions on trade, the heavy duty taxation on Brazil and also the high prices on manufactured goods wer e up for a beating.The reason why Portugal was able to hold on to Brazil was not because of military power and high oppressiveness as seen in other Latin American countries under Spanish rule, but because of the Portuguese crown Dom Joao and Portugals supply of stability in Brazil. The dissatisfaction should although not be exaggerated – the locals where in comparison much more involved with the formation and implementation of legislation just to mention one and Portuguese settlement had happened gradual, so prominent landowners were most likely first generation Brazilians, giving less incentives for rebellion and riots.All in all, Brazilians were better off than the other colonized countries in Latin America. Napoleon wars and moving Dom Joao With the Napoleon wars going on in Europe and many countries giving up their colonies, Brazil was kept in Portuguese hands. The Portuguese leader Dom Rodrigo de Sousa Coutinho, saw early on that Brazilian independence was just a matter of time. Therefore he suggested that regent Dom Joao should give up his residence in Portugal and move the apparatus to Brazil as a final option instead of being taken over by Napoleon.On August 12th 1807 Napoleon issued an ultimatum to the Portuguese foreign minister, he could either; close the ports to British ships, imprison all English residents and confiscate their property or face a French invasion. Britain backed the idea of leaving Portugal up and offered protection. For a while, Dom Joao tried to adopt anti-British policies, but already in November he learned that Generel Junot was marching on to Portugal with 23. 000 men. After the French troops entering Portugal Dom Joao made the decision of leaving Portugal.In late November the regent and an apparatus of 10-15. 000 people left for Brazil accompanied with British ships. The moving of the regent to Rio de Janeiro was a huge step for Brazil and their way to independence and the relationship between Portugal and Brazil was b etter than ever. The establishment of government in Rio de Janeiro ended the monopoly for Lisbon as an actor on exports and imports. Portugal no longer controlled Brazilian products and trade and Britain was the only country allowed to trade with Brazil until the ending of the Napoleon wars.The effects of having the regent in Rio de Janeiro, were great for Brazil. In 1808 the first printing press was published in Rio de Janeiro, furthermore books were released, libraries opened and probably most important; schools were opened which definitely contributed to the political awareness and intelligence. As a sum up on the movement, Brazil was now governed from Rio de Janeiro instead of Lisbon, and the relationship with Portugal was never really re-established. Later, after the liberation of Portugal, Dom Joao was expected back in Lisbon and British ships were sent to accompany they journey.Although Dom Joao had other plans and decided to stay and later on raising the Brazil to the status of Kingdom – thereby being equal to Portugal legally. In response to the decreasing colonial power a liberal-nationalsts opposition raised in Oporto and the Junta Provosoria was proposing a new constitution where the Cortes was to be elected for the Portuguese world. It became clear that the Portuguese intentions with Brazil were only to recapture Brazil and make it serve Portuguese interests. In general all the Portuguese attempts to lower the new status of Brazil and it’s political and economical opportunities were not successful.Trying to re-impose the heavy taxation and tariffs on Brazil only gave the Brazilians and even bigger incentive to gain independence. Independence Dom Pedro (son of Dom Joao) was the one to lead the process of cutting all cooperation with Portugal since the elites of Brazil came to the conclusion that it was not an option to keep doing so. This resulted in a combined elite front of Brazilian politicians, no matter political ideologies, to b attle the Cortes and they all swore allegiance to Dom Pedro.Brazilian politicians gained more and more confidence and in 1822 Dom Pedro received the last dispatches from Portugal revoking his decrees, charging his ministers with treason and demanding him back to Lisbon, he declared; â€Å"I proclaim Brazil forevermore separated from Portugal†. It although took some time to expel the last Portuguese men from Brazil. The Portuguese army ended up in Salvador, Bahia after being expelled from Rio de Janeiro. The Brazilian army was huge in terms of numbers but were not strong enough to overtake the Portuguese that consisted of 2. 00 regular troops and a 1. 500 men militia. The Portuguese had a major naval squadron stationed in Bahia, and therefore being in total control over the sea. Therefore Dom Pedro asked for the assistance of Lord Cochrane, a super successful frigate captain who had already played a major role in the independence of Chile in 1818. In 1823 Cochrane gathered a 9 ship Brazilian naval squadron for the blockade of Bahia and it was probably more reputation than actual force that made the Portuguese evacuate Bahia on June 2nd. The last Portuguese troops leftBrazil in March 1824 and Cochrane afterwards went to Rio de Janeiro to receive the title of Marques de Maranhao. Conclusion: The Brazilian independence was as mentioned earlier a pallet of many events and actors influencing the Brazilian population as well as the Portuguese. Brazilian demography and population size was important, not to mention the British, who played a large role all the way as an external actor. The moving of the regent to Rio de Janeiro and the Cortes helpless attempt to regain the former status of Brazil was definitely another factor influencing.Portugal as a nation was a declining European economy with trade deficits without Brazil. Also Brazil was not ruled by Portugal in the military way, and Portugal was only supplying the social stability in terms of a legal system. Therefore it makes no sense in itself for why Brazil should be ruled by a minor state compared to them selves. In my opinion the movement of the regent was one of the major events leading a much more joint operation and giving the Brazilians the local identity that led them to finally gaining independence in 1822.

Analysis of Nationalism and Ethnic Politics Literature review

Analysis of Nationalism and Ethnic Politics - Literature review Example The point of the existence of nationalism is a nation characterized by shared language, culture, and values. The academic theory on nationalism shows that national identity is usually contested and may reflect in the differences in class, gender, dialect, region, and language. Origin of nationality. The first studies relating to nationalism were mostly historically accounted for by the nationalist movements. Towards the end of the 19th century, the followers of Marx and other socialists showed an analysis that was very critical of the movements of the nationalists. This gives rise to the sociological theories of nationalism which date back to the period after the second world war. Some of these theories discuss issues relating to the identity of the people of a particular nation which are of major impact to nationalists (Smith, 2010). Anthony D. Smith shows the origin of nationalism and creates a synthesis of primordial and modernist views, which are now commonly referred to as an et hnic-symbolist approach. According to Smith, the conditions prior to the formation of a nation include: -A homeland that is fixed(current or historical) -High degree of autonomy -Hostile environments -Memories of battles -Sacred areas and centres -Languages -Special norms and practices -Historical records and way of thought Smith also postulates that the nation came into existence as a result of joining the whole population and not just the elite in the society, the introduction of legal and political institution, ideas from the nationalists, international popularity and the segregation of land by border formation. Research seeks to find out which among the nation or nationalism came first. According to the primordial theory of nationalism, nations are presented to be dating back or at least ethnic groups, as a social reality dating back twenty thousand years as a social reality. However, contrasting this speculation is the modernist theories which to a great extent show that until around 1800, there were no nations. The ideas of a national identity were first introduced by the European states for purposes of modernization and control of the economy and society. The people behind the modernist theory of nationalism view capitalism and printing press as important factors in nationalism. The Approaches to Nationalism The modernist Approach. The modernist approach borrows from the Marxist's traditions and as postulated by Smith, as much as nationalism is a modern concept, he insists that nations too have a pre-modern origin.  Ã‚  

Criminal justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Criminal justice - Essay Example It has often been confused that correctional facilities are intended to punish perpetrators of law. That said, the prison system plays a major role in removing criminals from the street thereby creating a safer haven for its citizens while providing opportunities for criminals to understand their offenses and change for the better. The rate of imprisonment in the United States has been on the increase in recent times and this has raised concern among public administrators and citizens in general. The prison administrators primarily are alarmed that in the near future the prisons may be insufficient to hold inmates convicted of felonies. Claims that the correctional facilities are not given enough attention as they ought to given their importance in ensuring security of its citizenry has lead to the recent debate on whether or not correctional facilities should be privatized or remain in the hands of federal and state government. Of course, each opposing side has reasons why they think things should be as they propose. Therefore, what are the pros and cons of privatization of correctional facilities specifically jails in the United States. The jail system is best left in the hands of the public because there are many aspects that would be negatively imparted if jails were privatized, for example employment. This is because underlying privatization of any state owned corporation is the issue of cost reduction. Therefore, in the arms of private companies, profit margins take precedence, meaning that most prison guards and staff would be laid off and the few left to work twice as hard in order that expenses are reduced. Moreover, the urge to cut corners in vital activities like recruiting staff, training and compensation among prison workers among others is high probability. The outcome increased rate of unemployment and by extension higher crime rate. In addition, privatized companies are notorious for bending standards of requirement. Employing of under

Hunger and Poverty among African-Americans in the last ten years in Research Paper

Hunger and Poverty among African-Americans in the last ten years in Texas - Research Paper Example The term poverty is defined as the lack of some basic needs of living. As such the research work is done to identify and evaluate the multiple dimensions of poverty and hunger associated with the Afro American group of the state. Therefore, the research question is to identify the reasons and impacts of hunger and poverty of the African-Americans in the last ten years in Texas. The Great Financial Crisis (GFC) of 2008 seems to have had many negative effects on the United States including Texas. One of the main effects of the economic downturn has been the increase in the poverty rates in Texas since the year 2009. Poverty and food insecurity among the Afro American people seem to be closely interlinked. One in four Afro American people live are eligible for an amount of $11, 670 assistance from the government. In case of a single member household the percentage of assistance varies from 100% to 400%. The level of percentage is the same for household size of 1 to 8 but the amount of assistance varies. For example, the amount of assistance for a 2 member household at the 100% level is $15, 730. The 100% assistance is highest for 8 members household where the assistance amount is $40, 090. Lee and Frongillo (2001) have identified in their work that the rate of poverty among the children in the Afro American group living in Texas is alarmingly high which has p ut the whole future generation in a risky state (Lee and Frongillo, 2001). The term of poverty line is denoted as the threshold level or the minimum amount of money a person needs to lead a life in a particular country. Almost 35.7% of the total population of Afro American children belong to the below poverty line group in Texas as compared to only 20% of the American children living below the poverty line specified by the federal government. Despite being a state experiencing high growth and development, the poverty rate in Texas is high. Poverty is Texas seems

English Language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

English Language - Essay Example Time zero is now, when Osama bin Laden, the international terrorist and top leader of the terror organization al Qaeda, has been killed by an elite US Navy special action force, the Zeal. The abstract is a summary of the entire article, which can be summarized here in a few words – that Omar bin Laden accuses the United States government of violating international law in killing their father. The first sentence, including the title, is full of meaning, that assuming that we do not know the man bin Laden, we can understand that violence was used against violence, that bin Laden was a violent man and that the US government stopped him by killing him. This was followed by S2 which affirms that the man who was killed was an unarmed terrorist leader who was summarily executed by the US government. However, we can also assume that the writer of the essay, which appeared in an online periodical, The Los Angeles Times, assumes in his abstract, that indeed the reader of this article kn ows Osama bin Laden, the top al Qaeda leader, the mastermind of the bombing of the twin towers of the World Trade Center, in which thousands were killed. The time expression in the story about Omar’s accusation provides a brief explanation of the events that transpired before that fateful day of May 2, 2011. First in S2, there is the statement and reaction of the bin Laden family. Omar’s sentiments clearly showed the immediate past – that he was communicating with his father. The ‘recency’ includes his (and his family’s) doubts over the statement from President Obama that they had killed bin Laden. Although, there is less doubt over the statements of the US government (another assumption), this news story has many underlying stories and sub-stories. We can still follow Bell’s framework on the role of the abstract in this subject of news English. The abstract is the introduction, or it introduces into the main theme or point of the stor y. The main point or idea of the story is that Omar is complaining and accusing that if indeed President Obama was correct in announcing to the world that they have killed bin Laden, the US government committed an illegal act in doing so. Bell says that double abstracts are common in news English, and this was ‘committed’ in this article – there is an accusation of the illegal act and the fact that Omar’s father may already be dead. There is a second presumption that the US President could have lied in saying that the al Qaeda leader is dead. The presumption is that it could be that Obama was lying, implying that he was using psychological warfare against the members of al Qaeda. It was probably to demoralize the members of the organization, and the United States was winning against the war on terror. The abstract in Bell’s framework also tells that is also linked by time expression, which portrays a cause-and-effect, i.e. Omar bin Laden is accusing the United States after they have killed his father. But there is another presumption, which is if Obama was telling the truth. The headline according to Bell’s framework is an abstract of the abstract, which is just a last-minute insertion by an editor. The ‘real’ abstract is the first sentence by Andrew Malcolm, the author. The attention of the reader is caught by the first abstract, the title, although we are sure, Malcolm’

BALANCE SCORE AND STRATGEY MAP ANALYSIS OF CHEVRON Essay

BALANCE SCORE AND STRATGEY MAP ANALYSIS OF CHEVRON - Essay Example The balanced score card is used here as a strategic management tool and strategic control system. The balance score card is supplemented with a strategy map. The strategy map use a more direct approach to depict the cause and effect relationship between the various objectives across finance, customer, internal process and learning and growth. The research report also involves a detailed explanation of the link between each type of objective. Apart from that the strategies are also linked with the mission and objectives of Chevron. Based on the observations obtained from the balanced score card and the strategy map, a recommendation is prepared. A critical analysis of the balanced score card is also provided along with limitation and conclusion in this report. Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction 4 2.0 Vision of the company 4 3.0 Strategy 5 4.0 Designed Balanced Scorecard 6 4.1 Customer perspective 7 4.2 Financial perspective 7 4.3 Learning and innovation perspective 9 4.4 Internal proc esses perspective 9 5.0 Balance of balanced scorecard 10 6.0 Strategy map (ping) 12 7.0 Links within each perspective 13 8.0 Links with respect to particular company 14 9.0 Recommendations 14 10.0 Balanced scorecard a critical analysis 15 11.0 Limitations of balanced scorecard 16 12.0 Conclusion 16 Reference 18 1.0 Introduction Chevron is a global energy company which deals into various kinds of energy sources like oil, natural gas, oil sands, geothermal, solar energy. The company is catering to the growing demand of energy for the world and at the same time making sure that the nature and environment is kept safe for a healthier and greener tomorrow (Anthony et al., 2011). In the next 35 years, it is estimated that the energy demand will increase by 40% of what is today. In order to cater to the growing demand of the world, efforts are underway to find new means of energy resources. As such the energy resources are scarce and it is estimated that by 2035 more than 30% of the world population is going to survive on renewable sources of energy. Chevron continues to search the horizon for better cleaner and more efficient sources of energy. This endeavour is costly and time consuming and most of the time there are no pay offs from such endeavours. Besides conducting the search for better and cleaner energy and feeding the world with its energy demands, Chevron is also committed to provide a greener and cleaner environment. Various other endeavours involve expenses and Chevron needs to make sure that the ultimate payoff is able to compensate for the costs endured (Argyris, 2007). In order to prepare a road map that can lead to better strategic position in future a balanced score card along with strategic map is presented in this research topic. 2.0 Vision of the company Chevron envisions supplying the world with energy products that will help to create sustainable economic progress as well as human development all across the world. To create people and organisati on equipped with excellent capabilities and commitment (Forza and Salvador, 2001). To built a strong brand image among customers, governments, employees as well as local communities. 3.0 Strategy The road to a sustainable future is structured by using balanced score card and subsequent creation of a strategy map to show the implementation of the balanced score card. The strategy is to improve the learning and growth indices. So that improved employee

A Review of Fahrenheit 451 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A Review of Fahrenheit 451 - Essay Example This point is brought home when there is a nuclear war that happens to Mildred and others, that nobody really knew was coming, because nobody was reading anything and staying informed. The television shows which were on tv in this alternative world were not informative at all – the entertainment on the TV is considered to be insipid and as having no depth. Therefore, even though Montag tries to talk to Mildred and her friends, it is difficult to do, as they are not interested in much of anything and only have trivial knowledge about the world and politics. So, since the people are not aware of what is going on, the government is able to do what they want to the people, and the people are not going to protest and try to stop it, because they do not know that it is about to happen. That was the point of showing the advent of the nuclear bomb at the end of the book – this shows what happens when people are not allowed to read.This is one of the themes. Another theme, of co urse, is the dangers of censorship. There seems to be issues with today's society, where there is censorship going on in places. Individuals want books taken off of school shelves because the content of the books are deemed not suitable for their children to read. Which is all well and good, except that they don't want other children to read these books either, which is not good. A parent may decide for him or herself that a certain book isn't suitable for the individual child, but this is not what they want. They want the books to be off-limit to all. Bradbury obviously does not believe in this practice, and he shows the books burning. Censorship is related to not knowing what is going on, and it is not difficult to imagine why this would be so. Because, the fact of the matter is, there is going to be content that is objectionable to somebody or another, because there is going to be aspects of life which are objectionable. But, if one shuts their eyes to what is objectionable, then the people will shut their eyes to all that is bad in the world. This, too, will result in the government being able to do what they want to the people. So, this is how censorship is bad for society, and Bradbury captures this perfectly. Therefore, the two major themes, which are related, were the dangers of censorship and the dangers of apathy. Apathy came from censorship, in part, but one gets the feeling that Mildred and her friends would be apathetic even if there wasn't censorship. Which brings the review to another aspect of Bradbury's tale which was effective, and that was characterization. Each of the characters represented some kind of archetype that would exist in such a dystopian future. They represent aspects of society which exist now in some form. Mildred and her friends, for instance, are representative of the apathetic people in society. The ones who do not care currently what is going on around them, but will memorize every episode of something insipid on televisio n. These people are legion, really, and this is what Mildred and her friends represent. Montag represents the individuals in society who try to observe law and order, but fail to do so, because the law is unjust. Montag is a fireman, who sets fire to books, which means that he was a part of the problem. Yet, he also was questioning, and eventually was the one who tries to buck society. He's active in doing this, so he represents the

The Foodservice Management Information System Essay Example for Free

The Foodservice Management Information System Essay The Foodservice Management Information System (FMIS V) sold by Genesistems, Inc. since 1980 on mini and super mini computers is now available on low cost personal computers and popular networks under FMIS V. According to Genesistems President Eric Muench, new programming languages have provided a method of allowing Genesistems proven FMIS system to operate with the same speed and flexibility on the new popular personal computers that was formerly available only on larger computers. This brings the cost of an automated solution for the foodservice operator down to a price that is affordable. The manager must be able to determine prices and schedules, make forecasts, perform an ongoing audit of inventory and other company assets, and monitor performance. More and more managers are turning to the computer to provide this information on a timely basis, he said. Traditionally, foodservice institutions have had weak in-house accounting systems based on tedious manual procedures, Muench continued. The result has been poor cost control. Food cost information is generally outdated before manual computations can even be completed. FMIS V solves these and other problems at a reasonable cost. FMIS V consists of the following modules: general ledger, accounts payable, payroll, bank reconciliation, inventory control, recipe control, sales analysis, and management report writing. Telecommunications input is available for certain cash registers. All modules are integrated and provide full accounting information automatically to the general ledger for up-to-date financial statements. The Foodservice Management Information System is available nationally from Genesistems, Inc. For more details on the Foodservice Management Information System, please contact us for more information. General Ledger The General Ledger module is the center of the accounting system. It is a powerful yet easy to use module that can accommodate a single unit restaurant as well as a large multiple unit operation. The General Ledger is automatically updated from all other modules being operated. Both 12 and 13 period accounting are supported. The Trial Balance Report and General Ledger Report provide the necessary documentation and audit trails required of a professional accounting system. Financial Statements can be designed to your specifications by you within the General Ledger module. The optional Management Report Writer gives you the added ability to print complex financial statements that consolidate or compare multiple time periods and units if necessary. Account budgets may be set up and used in forecasting and comparisons to actual activity. Accounts Payable The Accounts Payable module is designed to allow you to better manage your vendor invoices and payments. Inventory purchases that are entered will be automatically updated to the Inventory, Recipe, and Sales Analysis modules without any additional work. Invoices may be entered in summary, detail, or a combination of the two. By entering invoices, you are creating the capability of accumulating unpaid invoices easily at any time. A purchase history by vendor is also maintained, and check payment can be accomplished easily in a method that is convenient for your operation. This module lets you stay on top of your outstanding invoices so that invoices are never paid for twice. Payroll The Payroll module is designed for time entry, printing payroll checks, general ledger distribution and year-end W-2 forms. It can operate on a daily, weekly, bi-weekly, semi-monthly, or monthly basis with all input verified, copied, and employee records updated during the End-Pay-Period procedure. Other useful options are included such as payroll history inquiry, earnings summary report, employee payroll history, tip allocation, tip reporting and is integrated to the optional Federal Magnetic Media Reporting module. The module is easy to use due to its one-step nature. After set-up with a General Ledger file and initial data entry, payroll tracking becomes relatively easy. Time is entered, then the register is printed. If corrections are necessary, they can be made to the appropriate entries and the register re-printed. After everything balances, checks and reports are printed and then the pay period can be closed. This module is designed to operate in conjunction with other modules that may be installed. Programs are explained as if the General Ledger module were included. Information is transferred to all integrated modules as a function of the End-Pay-Period procedure or is transferred each month through the End-of-Month posting procedure. Bank Reconciliation The Bank Reconciliation module is used to manage your bank accounts. It is automatically updated as checks are written and deposits are entered. A simple method of canceling checks allows you to reconcile the account to the bank statement in very little time. Multiple bank accounts can be maintained simply and easily. A historical check register is maintained for up to five years for your review. Accurate, on demand financial statements tighten management control and eliminate monthly accounting fees. True, double entry accounting with forced balancing of entries eliminates costly posting errors. Comparisons of business units permit management to make intelligent analysis and take effective action. Reporting accommodates easy consolidation of multiple units or companies for corporate requirements. Simple invoice entry organizes and validates invoices for accuracy and automatically updates the Inventory module if necessary. Accounts Payable Cash Requirements Report provides immediate access to a list of currently due invoices and the total cash required. Controlled payment of Accounts Payable invoices eliminates duplicate payments, conserves cash, and accrues interest. Selection and printing of Accounts Payable computer checks saves time and eliminates errors. Bank Reconciliation provides an easy way to control and reconcile any bank accounts. Inventory Control The Inventory Control module is designed to allow you a fast and easy way to keep track of your inventory. You are able to track what you have purchased and what prices you are paying from various suppliers for any length of time. In-house batch production items can be processed along with multiple location transfers. Inventory is first categorized into major classifications that you choose such as meat, dairy and produce. Inventory can be kept on a perpetual basis by entering your purchases for those items and taking a physical count monthly or as frequently as desired to get your actual usage on each item. Inventory may also be kept on a periodic basis which does not require entering all your purchases. The periodic method allows for entry of a physical count and last cost at any point in time and will automatically extend the inventory for you. Both methods provide inventory count sheets by specific storage location and fast inventory count entry methods. The two methods can also be combined to allow detailed control of high cost items and less detailed control of less significant items. Recipe Control The Recipe Control module works hand in hand with the Inventory Control module. It provides you with an organized method of entering your recipes. You can take advantage of the ability to monitor your costs at all times before cost increases erode your profit margins. Unlimited levels of sub-recipes can be maintained very easily. Recipes can include a plate cost for items that you may not want to set up. Recipes can be costed in seconds at Last Cost or Average Cost and can be printed or displayed on the screen. Each recipe can also have detailed preparation instructions set up for use as a training manual. Quick, accurate food and beverage cost percentages can spot increasing costs before it is too late. What If capability for quick, profitable decisions on effect of price and cost changes to a menu or individual item. Easy, timely, accurate trend information on profit margins and popularity of menu items. Regular variance reporting on Actual versus Potential Inventory Usage flags items to watch for excessive use. Prompt, accurate comparisons of multi-unit sales for better management analysis and decisions. Server analysis tells you who is and who isnt selling items such as specials and desserts. Usage, waste and pilferage information is available at any time for management corrective action to maximize profits. Inventory Use and Purchase History allows more accurate inventory planning. Provides a clear, precise way of standardizing recipes for easier employee use. Inventory transfers between multiple units are tracked for proper allocation of charges and better management relations. Inventory Production allows the tracking of in-house prep items to show actual inventory usage and real costs. Friendly, flexible set up allows you to track only information you need and not data that you dont care about. Sales Analysis The Sales Analysis module completes the operations triangle. Both Inventory and Recipe Control are related heavily to Sales Analysis. Menu items are set up and defined at this point. A menu item can refer to a recipe or directly to an inventory item. Daily sales can be entered manually or transferred from a point of sale device if one is available. Sales history is maintained on a daily basis for any number of years. Entering your sales will generate your potential or optimal use of each inventory item and will give you an actual versus potential usage variance. Sales trends can be tracked in a wide variety of methods using the Management Report Writer. Sales Analysis gives you the capability to stay on top of your margins and control them before they can hurt you. Management Report Writing The Report Writer module allows the creation of custom reports wanted by individual companies. The flexibility and adaptability of this module allows for seemingly unlimited variations of report types. This module is limited only by your imagination. Thirty-six columns are available for mathematical and statistical computations (only limited by your printers capability). Data to be printed on these reports can be drawn from a variety of sources. The most common source is General Ledger and the Report Writer is particularly suited to producing complex financial statements. Reports can also be produced based on data from Sales Analysis or from the Statistics section of the Management Report Writer.

The Role Of State In Rural Sustainable Development Economics Essay

The Role Of State In Rural Sustainable Development Economics Essay This chapter basically presents an overview of the rural sector of Pakistan with glances of comparison with the urban sector. Further on this chapter also relates to the function and specific strategies carried out by government and institutions that are required for sustainable development. The objective of this chapter is to give an insight in to the profile of rural sector of Pakistan in order to closely view the problems and enhance the efficiency of these areas by improving the quality of development activities through a professional approach. 1.1Rural Urban divide and profile in Pakistan. Pakistan, a nation, is in its developing phase even after 64 years of Independence has been making countless efforts to reach the stage of sustainable development in urban and rural areas of Pakistan. The challenges of implementation of resources and the scarcity of public funds available for allocation between urban and rural backfires against Pakistan development process, as development is naturally a risky business and the structure of Pakistans development expenditure is not stable enough to lead to sustainability. Most of the poor people of Pakistan currently live in rural areas. There are approximately 50,000 villages (Pak) According to the economic survey, 63.6% (Nizami, 2009)of the total population lives in villages. The rural population lacks tools and facilities to adequately cope with the risks and difficulties that they are often faced with. Therefore they are more vulnerable. Further on, the recent incidents like flood and earthquake in 2008 has dampened the situation in the rural areas and have made them worse off than before by destroying the agriculture sector completely. On the other hand, the economic survey of Pakistan reports that in currently 36.3% of the total population lives in the urban areas which has expanded sevenfold since 1950 (Nizami, 2009). Urban areas are more advanced and developed in telecommunication, media awareness, educational and health facilities when compared to the rural areas but issues like air pollution from industrial effluents, vehicle emissions, traffic congestion and low literacy rate pose a very strong threat to development. Overall, infrastructure and facilities in both rural and urban areas are lacking and substantial improvements are required and careful consideration needs to be provided by the government on resource allocation as it will lead towards sustainable economic growth in future. 1.2. An overview of the livelihood and provision of social services in rural settings of Pakistan; Inter-regional and Infra-regional disparities. The rural economy of Pakistan mainly consist of high population growth, with very low literacy rate, unhygienic living facilities, poor water and sanitation facilities, lack of health and infrastructural facilities. Moreover social sector of the rural economy is deprived and lacks basic facilities with household size on average greater than that of urban areas. Inter- regional disparity basically is the disparity that exists between the provinces of Pakistan whereas intra-regional disparities are the disparities that exist between within the province. The inter-regional imbalances have economic, social and political implications; in case of Pakistan the economic activities are concentrated to specific provinces. The insufficient provision of public infrastructure obstructs the private capital formation and economies in relatively lagging regions cause underdevelopment. Pakistan consists of four regions, Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan which are highly diverse in terms of size, population and level of economic activity, sizable interregional disparity exists in per capita income, the extent of disparities in employment ratio and labor productivity is also high and have growing trend since 1982. The two regions Punjab and Sindh are more advanced when compared with Balochistan and NWFP. There are technological differences also leading to difference in productivity On the other intra-regional disparity also exists in Pakistan. There is significant difference within the provinces itself due to varied economic structure and dynamism. Large gaps in the living standards have been seen due to the variations in the development stages of cities. The quality of physical infrastructure and expenditure spent by the government also contributes to disparity in Pakistan as cities with more facilities will have more exposure to opportunities and thereby leading to more income, 1.3 Transformation of Agriculture, mobility of capital from Agriculture and sustainability of rural development. In spite of the structural shift towards industrialization, the Agriculture sector still is one of the significant growth areas of the Pakistan economy, It is known to be the second largest sector in terms of labor employment and as well as GDP composition which accounts to 21% of GDP (Farooq, 2009). Its a source of living for majority of the rural population and is also the prime contributor in Pakistans exports. The efforts by the policy makers have been to encourage the growth in the industrial sector for a vision of sustainable rural development which is being funded at the expense of the agriculture sector is not an efficient approach. Even though both the sectors have a positive impact on the GDP but since most of the rural population is employed in agriculture and illiterate thus agriculture growth will lead to rural development and ultimately industrial growth. Despite the agriculture importance, a fluctuating trend has been followed by this sector over the past six years but has still shown a rise of average rate of 3.7 percent per annum. The overall performance in the year 2009 was weaker than expectations. The previous years performance showed a 4% growth so the expected growth in year 2009 was 3.8% whereas only 2% growth was seen. (Farooq, 2009) In order for Agriculture sector to advance, critical investments need to be made in new seeds, employing advance technologies and procedures and irrigational facilities which currently are not being provided. Globalization and transferability of technology in free market economy has necessitated employment of advance, cost effective and efficient technological agricultural equipment to be used by the farming community. The efficient use of scarce agriculture resources with employment of advance technology will assist in meeting the future challenges and industrial growth. Sustainable development has been defined intersection of social, environmental and economic goals (Levett, 1998).Without sustainable development in agriculture no tactic of economic reforms can be appreciated, as it is the key to raise the living standards, giving food security by reducing poverty, expanding market of industry and services and ultimately leading to sustainable development. However, the recent economic situation of Pakistan does not provide any support to industrial growth, the electricity shortage and instability in the economy has lead to low investments and shut down of many of the industries, as no positive returns were being realized. 1.4. Agriculture transformation, skilled labor migration and rural livelihood. The government has been making efforts to encourage industrial growth in Pakistan and provisions of human capital facilities have not only leaded to increase in output and income but also indirectly affected labor allocation. Education leads to a shift of rural household resources from farm activities to off-farm activities. Further on, the rapid economic growth in urban areas and the rural income inequality lead to an increase in rural urban labor migration, which caused reduction of the size of rural workforce therefore further reduction in the productivity of agriculture. From 1950à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ 2008, Pakistans total population expanded over fourà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ fold, whereas the total population increased over sevenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ fold (Nizami, 2009). Rural urban migration does not have very positive result on an economy instead leads to adverse conditions of overloading of housing and social services, increased crime rate, pollution, unemployment and congestion in urban areas. Therefore factors contributing to the urbanization should be a major concern so that corresponding policies can be made accordingly but on the other hand, rural population of Pakistan is scattered over a vast areas of mountainous and forested terrain. Therefore it makes it expensive and difficult to extent the basic resources to all areas through migration, the population moves towards the areas where the services can be delivered with reasonable cost. In order to control the problem of skilled labor migration from agriculture, effective policies by government should be taken to reduce and minimize the rural-urban gap as its the key reason for migration. Moreover, in agriculture sector advance mechanization techniques should be adopted and a shift to land use growth. Agriculture is one of the vital sectors of economic growth in Pakistans economy. Therefore careful consideration needs to be given to it. 1.5 Government initiatives and institutions for rural development in Pakistan. The basic purpose of the government is to provide appropriate instruments and support to the vulnerable rural areas for effective and sustainable rural development. A framework must have strategies that are adequate in dealing with the problems faced by the rural areas and also emphasize on the sources and characteristics of the problems that are being occurred in order for a better understanding of the situation. Not only this task is challenging for government, NGOs and the international agencies but also varied but still initiatives are being carried out by the government to cope with the situation. However, deficiencies in the provision of basic infrastructure and social services in rural areas still remain. For the promotion of growth in agriculture sector the government has taken recently several steps which has increased the availability of fertilizer by 25.3%.The installation of tube wells and water for irrigation was enhanced by seepage control and land leveling. The positive features also include empowering local governance and greater funds accessibility under Tameer-e-Pakistan and Khushal Pakistan Programme. Further on, the permission to import machinery not produced locally at zero tariffs by the federal government has also encouraged the use of latest technology (Farooq, 2009).Other processes like laser land leveler, broad bed framing system and ridge are also being promoted by the government at subsidized prices to the farmers Through the Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), rural industrialization of labor intensive industries and technologies has been encouraged by value addition and enhancing worker skills and facilitating technology up gradation. Industrial estates are also established along the motorways in close proximity for rural areas. Emphasis has been placed on provision of physical and social infrastructure, including farm to market roads, village electrification, clean drinking water and sanitation, and education and health facilities. The capacity for disaster management for floods, earthquakes, epidemics and other emergencies has also been improved and networking of training institutions will be undertaken to support the training efforts in line with the rural development strategy. National Population control programs and other policies have been adopted by the government for population control. Media awareness has been provided in the form of advertisements. The provision of Lady Health workers program and rural health centers have been provided to the rural and poor people for awareness and increasing health standards. 1.6. Rural Development, rural planning and intergenerational equity. Pakistan aims to transform itself into a just, prosperous, and sustainable society. In order it to be just, the concept of intergenerational equity is necessary to understand which basically means to keep a balance between the present and future generations with regard to the rural development and also a balance between the community and all individuals should have equal access to community resources and opportunities. While planning rural development, intergenerational equity should take into account resources utilization, rural poverty reduction and environmental degradation. With the use of resources and depletion of some resources, the options and choices available to future generations are decreased. Permanent losses can take place if the natural resources are depleted as they cannot be created by artificial scientific procedures. Therefore careful consideration needs to be given when allocating resources. Deforestation, ozone layer depletion and acid rain are the common developmental problems that future generation have to deal with if the current generations are not cautious in their consumption. Thus, environment plays a major role when making developmental plans. 1.7. Elements and sources of lack of sustainability in rural development; issues and concerns for Pakistan. The major issue and concern for Pakistan in rural development is the risk what managers and policy makers are very often faced with as Agriculture is a very risky and uncertain sector but since the risk is unavoidable in every situation so the decisions and policies should be devised by taking all possible alternate into account and gathering all the information and then choosing the best possible one with minimum risk. Moreover there is lack of proper technology facilities available in the rural settings which are also a major drawback and a hurdle in rural development process. Telecommunication technology can be used by the farmers to obtain up-to-date information on the market price leading to a clear idea of selling price that can be set. Further on, weather forecasts can also be used by the farmer for precautionary planning of the crops and farming practices accordingly. Even though efforts has been made in the past to provide credit facilities to the rural sectors of Pakistan through SMEs but government and other bank institutions still remain reluctant to provide loans as there are more chances of default in rural areas but may give loans to small farmers if they offer some sort of collateral which usually is in undesirable form. Therefore informal credit practices are mostly used by the developing countries including Pakistan as they have a better knowledge of the activities of the farmers. Illiterate population is also one of the contributing factors in the increase of poverty in rural areas of Pakistan. The skilled and somewhat literate labor migrate to urban areas in search of a better living standards and job opportunities making the development of rural areas stagnant and slow. Moreover rural areas are also not assisted with proper health care facilities therefore increasing number of diseases are being travelled throughout the rural areas mainly after the flood incident the number of waterborne diseases has increased to large extent. The highly uneven distribution of resources is one of the major concerns being faced by Pakistan. The industrialist and politicians have formed alliance and taken over the resources of the nation. Further on, urban areas are readily accessible with resources whereas rural areas continue to be neglected. 1.8. Key words and definitions. Inter-regional disparity: Disparity among provinces. Intra-regional disparities: Disparity within the provinces. Sustainable development has been defined intersection of social, environmental and economic goals (Levett, 1998) Tameer-e-Pakistan: a social intervention aimed to undertake schemes relating to federal functions such as rural electrification, gas supply, etc (2003) Khushal Pakistan Programme: a social intervention aimed at generating economic activity through public works and temporary employment (2003) Intergenerational equity is a concept that says that humans hold the natural and cultural environment of the Earth in common both with other members of the present generation and with other generations, past and future (Beder, 2000) Small and Medium Enterprise (SME): means an entity, ideally not a  public  limited company, which does not employee more than 250 persons (if  it is manufacturing concern) and 50 person (if it is trading / service  concern) (State bank of Pakistan) 1.9. Study objectives. To test the proposition that how employment in SME sector has impacted rural development. To test the proposition that how quality of institution has an impact on rural development. To test the proposition that military regime compared with other regime has an impact on rural development. To test the proposition that exchange rate depreciation has an impact on rural development Chapter 2: Literature Review This chapter of extensive literature review would help develop a clear idea about what are the reasons behind the role of state in sustainable rural development in Pakistan. It enhances the previous chapter where study objectives and concerns were raised about the need for this research. 2.1 A brief profile of rural settings and rural livelihood in developing countries. Pakistan is basically an agro based economy at its developing stage but recently the slow growth, increasing unemployment and the rising costs have created problems for the policy makers to allocate agricultural subsidies in rural areas. Pakistan represents an interesting and vital projection to test market imperfections faced by the developing countries. Ramus Heltberg, in his article, talks about the market imperfections that are normally found in the rural sectors of Pakistan. According to him, the ownership of land is traditionally considered a source of status and political power in Pakistan, Therefore the urban population is unwilling to let go of their belongings in the rural areas which makes the distribution of land extremely disproportionate and unequal. Further on he pointed out that there exist policies with regard to different farm sizes, which include subsidies for mechanization and credit for large farms. Moreover, small farms cannot fulfill the collateral requirements therefore they are excluded as most of the loans for tractor etc are ultimately defaulted; a biased strategy is followed by the institutions in case of loans to large farmers. (HELTBERG, 1998). Thus showing that role of small medium enterprise is very vital in sustainable economic growth in the rural areas as they facilitate backward areas with loans and funds despite the imperfections. Emphasizes is also paid on the relationship of farm size and productivity which was inverse and one of the major factors in rural development. This study was basically carried out by taking into account Pakistani farm data and concluded that the small farms are more productive when compared to the big farms and also that they can enhance agriculture productivity and increase justice but however the effect on social efficiency remained ambiguous. (HELTBERG, 1998) With the growing economy, Credit is increasingly becoming an integral part of the process of development, even in rural areas of Pakistan. The paper by M. Ali Chaudhary and Mohammad Ishfaq, attempts to provide baseline estimates of probability of repayment from borrowers belonging to rural sector in Pakistan which is the most important component, to be estimated in access the credit risk. It also points out that that although the rural borrowing still amounts to a small proportion of the total borrowing of the country but the supply of institutional credit to the rural residents is increasing slowly. The main findings indicate that collateral should be based on potential credit worthiness of borrowers. (M. Ali Chaudhary, Mohammad Ishfaq., 2003) Further on, the study also suggests the recommendations that can be helpful for the lenders and the policy makers to design credit programs accordingly. The results also highlight that interest rate do not affect the repayment schedule much. Agriculture income is very variable in nature and the non-agriculture sector borrowers have a higher probability of repayment. Therefore the lenders should diversify the portfolio of their loan and reduce covariant risk possibility. 2.2 Indicators and instruments of assessing sustainability of rural development. Hermann Kreutzmann, in his article highlights the indicators required to assess the development in mountainous region. According to him, the sustainability of rural development of mountainous regions escapes adequate attention due to lack of appropriate methods. Further on comparative data is also absent, and it is complicated to verify the position of mountainous region within nation states. The purpose of this article was to discuss by investigating comparative approach of selected indicators that are mainly used in development reports. This discussion helped in better understanding of the application process and revealed the theoretical limitations that facilitated us with a vision to apply appropriate strategies for development. (Kreutzmann, 2001) International Year of Mountains stated that consideration and special focus needs to be given to research and application of comparative approaches. This article also used examples from the case studies in South Asian high mountain regions and introduced approaches that applied human development indicators to various regional levels. Analysis and evaluation of the results and interpretations of the indicators would reveal problems in the mountain research for further investigation. The results showed that in order for development to take in High Mountain areas, comparable indicators of development should be used to enhance our understanding of existence of disparities. Further on same development concepts applied to other regions should be used for developing countries mountainous areas. The demand to advance the living standards of the living standards of the mountain dwellers are brought into light several times but rarely realized. In order for development to progress the policy makers should identify the regions and enhance communication and facilities of people living in the mountain regions. (Kreutzmann, 2001) 2.3 Infrastructure, provision of social services and their livelihood. Mohammed A Ghaffar in his paper underlines that most of the government spending is allocated in the energy sector as Pakistan has few energy resources and the country is heavily dependent on the import of fossil fuel. It is stated, that more than 20% of foreign exchange earnings is spent on oil imports every year still the rural population consumes wood, animal and crop waste for its domestic energy needs. This paper presents the energy supply situation in the rural sector of Pakistan and identifies the energy shortage problem through means of a survey. The key findings of this paper is that very few farmers have access to electricity and those who have, mainly use it for lighting purposes which does not increase their comfort level. Farmers suffer during summer due to the shutdown of electric tube-wells when there is a shortage of irrigation water supply due to the low levels in canals. This is ultimately reflected in low productivity of farms. The load shedding has created a negative impact on the economy of Pakistan, because the industrial sector is closed down during peak hours in the evenings. The intensity of load shedding is expected to increase in future with increased demand for energy. (Ghaffar, 1995) Energy expenditures are influenced largely by other variables, such as the family size and energy consumption pattern. The contribution of electricity is negligible to overall energy supply in the rural sector. A common person in the rural sector could increase his standard of living by empolying renewable energy resources, such as solar Pv methods can be used to supply d.c. power to households and for lighting. Biogas can be used for cooking and heating purposes. (Ghaffar, 1995). Moving on the article by Nadeem Ilahi and Franque Grimard accessed the important role that women play in reducing poverty and ultimately promoting development in developing countries. (Nadeem Ilahi and Franque Grimard, 2000). Further on the article also highlighted the role of infrastructure in promoting development, it stated that infrastructure should be improved to increase the efficiency in production; it is not only confided to benefits in the production efficiency but also contributes to increase in the living standards of rural households. In the case of Pakistan, it also helps to raise the nutritional status of rural children. The article aimed to investigate how the quantity and quality of infrastructure affect the time women allocate to their various activities by focusing on the water structure and variations in the quality by taking into account the time allocated by rural women to market-oriented activities, leisure and water collection. The results concluded a negative relationship between the advancements in Pakistans water supply infrastructure and the time spent by rural women in water collection. As the infrastructure is improved, women allocate more time to income-generating activities. The social and institutional components may play a role in coming up with such a conclusion but economic opportunities and limitations should not be neglected of ignore in being one of a major influence on the time allocation of women in the developing countries rural areas. (Nadeem Ilahi and Franque Grimard, 2000) 2.4 Agricultural transformation, mobility of capital and prospects of rural development. In the article, by Shida Rastegari Henneberry, Muhhamad Ehsan Khan and Kullapapruk Piewthongngam, An analysis was carried out by basically making comparison between industrial and agricultural sectors of Pakistan for better insight in Pakistans economy and ultimately development. Pakistan is known to have heavy dependence on the agricultural sector which is carried mostly in the rural areas of Pakistan due to vast availability of land. The results showed that both the industries complemented each other, industry however grew more from agricultural growth than the other way round. Pakistans policy makers require a lot of information in order to make appropriate policies for industrial development through agricultural development. Further on, the article also stated that development of the industry will not only increase the profits of the private sector but also increase the potential of the economy causing an increase in amount of goods that can be produced more efficiently in given amount of resources. Industrialization not only benefits a nation by meeting its domestic needs but also enhances the exports through exporting the excess manufactured goods. Moreover, the excess labor is also absorbed by the industrial sector ultimately leading to an increase in income of the nation. For developing countries like Pakistan, the growth of the agricultural along with industrial sector needs to be given due importance. (Sh ida Rastegari Henneberr, Muhhamad Ehsan Khan, Kullapapruk Piewthongngam, 2000) In order to follow the footsteps of the Western world, many third-world nations have adopted the path of industrialization but if the resources are inefficiently allocated among the industrial sector, it slows the growth of the economy and also reduces the labor absorption rate of the industry and ultimately reducing opportunities for expansion of income and causing income inequalities. Therefore to avoid such a situation, development in agriculture sector is needed as it would effectively widen the income base and promote industries development with lower capital per worker ratios. This study proved that the agricultural growth has a considerable impact on the industrial growth. (Shida Rastegari Henneberr, Muhhamad Ehsan Khan, Kullapapruk Piewthongngam, 2000) Further on, this study highlighted that some policies to promote industrial development have not been implemented properly, like the interest rate subsidies are given to encourage capital structure in the industrial sector. However results showed that the policies to increase investment and industrial growth have not been able to achieve their desired objectives, showing that developing countries need not to abandon agriculture development completely to achieve industrial development. (Shida Rastegari Henneberr, Muhhamad Ehsan Khan, Kullapapruk Piewthongngam, 2000) This study basically proved that the role of institutions and bureaucracy is very vital in the rural development as they make and implement the right strategies that are required for development. 2.5 Skilled labor migration and rural development. The article basically underlines the rural development projects and schemes that reduce rural-urban migration. According to the study equalized land or income distribution with increase in cultivatable land will lead to reduced rural urban migration. Whereas on the other hand easily access to cities, commercialize agriculture, increase in rural inequalities and education and skills disparity among rural urban stimulates migration. (Rhoda) The basic approach taken by this research was to review migration theories and the empirical research, further establish rural-urban migration concerns and then evaluate the impacts of the migration on the rural development. The development strategies focused on agriculture development, provision of rural social services and off-farm employment. The study explains rural-urban migration as the household transfer from a predominantly agricultural area to area with mainly employment in non-agricultural activities. The definition did not distinguish between seasonal, temporary and permanent migration. Permanent migration is more of concern since it creates more problems for urban areas, however seasonal and temporary migration often lead to permanent migration. The factors leading to migration in this study was economic opportunities and availability of friends in urban areas. The cost/benefit model indicated that rural development decreased both the costs and benefits of migration. This research basically discusses rural-urban migration advantages and disadvantages. It also explains the costs and benefits of urbanization in Bolivia. According to the article, promoting rural-urban migration is one of the cheapest ways to reduce poverty in Bolivia as it is cheaper to facilitate basic services like electricity and health services to particular rural areas when compared to providing the facilities to vast areas of mountains or forest terrain is not only difficult but expensive also. Although rapid rural-urban migration is known as a dilemma for majority of the developing countries, but this paper highlighted the case Bolivia to prove that for some developing countries it might be a solution to many problems, by promoting rural-urban migration with reasonable policies, it may be possible to lessen most of the problems faced by Bolivian economy. In order to curb with the problem of urbanization, this article suggested that the efficient city planning with the location of streets and public areas need to publish to public so that sensible houses are constructed. 2.6 Elements of intergenerational equity and justice in rural development. 2.7 State initiatives and rural planning in developing countries. Development in rural areas is without doubt a risky business which has caused a challenging and highly varied task for the governments, NGOs and internatio

Polarisation of Light Investigation

Polarisation of Light Investigation Valentin Haemmerli Abstract. An optical system consisting of a laser, a polariser, a quarter-wave plate, a prism, and a light detector connected to a multi-meter was used to find the transmission axes of the polariser and the quarter-wave plate, find the angle of polarisation of the laser relative to the optical axis and investigate the quality of the polariser and quarter-wave plate by comparing the theoretical and experimental values of degree of polarisation for linear, circular and elliptic polarisations. These were found to be 0.98 ±0.03 compared to 1 for linear, 0.18 ±0.03 compared to 0 for circular and 0.59 ±0.03 compared to 0.65 for a particular ellipse. Introduction Polarisation of electromagnetic radiation is a fundamental phenomenon arising directly from the wave properties of light. Polarisation of light in the visual spectrum has many commercial applications such as stress analysis of birefringent materials[1, 2], sugar content analysis in the brewing industry and in food chemistry[1], liquid crystal displays [2] and in sunglasses. In addition to these applications, polarisation of light has a number of important scientific uses, including â€Å"determining the refractive indices, absorption constants and reflecting power of †¦highly absorbing materials† [1]. There are three different cases for polarised light; linear, circular and elliptical. The aim of this investigation was to calibrate the optical system and subsequently use it to analyse transmission intensities for each of these types, and compare the respective degrees of polarisation to theoretical values. Theory Polarisation Types Electromagnetic waves have electric and magnetic field components propagating as sinusoidal waves where the directions of the electric field vector is perpendicular to both the direction of the magnetic field vector and to the direction of propagation at all times. Due to this constant relation between electric and magnetic field vectors, we can describe polarisation in terms of electric field only for simplicity. Linear polarisation is the case where the x and y components of electric field for a wave traveling in the z-direction are varying in phase with each other, so they are both at their maxima at the same time, and both at their minima at the same time, and the electric component of the wave is always in the same plane. This is shown in Figure 1a). Circular polarisation, shown in Figure 1b), occurs when the x and y components of the electric field vector have the same amplitudes and have a phase difference of Ï€/2, or Ï€/2 plus an integer multiple of Ï€. The end point of the resulting electric field vector traces out a circle in the x-y plane, which translates to a helix once time is taken into account. Elliptical polarisation, of which circular polarisation is merely the special case when the amplitudes are equal and the phase difference is where . Elliptical polarisation is therefore any case for which the end point of the electric field vector traces out an ellipse in the x-y plane. This is shown in Figure 1c). Brewster’s Law Brewster’s Law states that for a beam incident on a flat horizontal glass surface of a prism at the Brewster angle, given by ,(1) where is the refractive index of the prism, only the component of the beam with polarisation parallel to the incident plane is reflected. This fact can be used to determine the polarisation of the incident beam after it has passed through the analyser. By rotating the analyser until there is no reflected component the beam is polarised vertically and hence has not component in the horizontal direction. Quarter-wave plate A quarter-wave plate is an optical device which is made of two materials with different refractive indices which has the effect of introducing a phase difference of Ï€/2 between the perpendicular x and y component of the electric field vector for light of a particular wavelength. The quarter-wave plate has two perpendicular transmission axes. A quarter-wave plate can therefore be used to change the polarisation of the incident light from linear to elliptical and in the simple case of the ellipse, circular. Degree of polarisation The equation used to find the degree of linear polarisation of light for transmitted intensities measured for angles of analyser is ,(2) where I is intensity. Experimental Method We first found the transmission axis of the Polaroid analyser using Brewster’s Law of horizontal polarisation using the set up in Figure 2.We started at an approximate value of Brewster’s Angle using n=1.6 for the refractive index of the prism. We set the incident angle to this, and then rotated the analyser until no light was reflected from the face of the prism, but light was still transmitted through the analyser. By slight changes of the incident angle on the face of the prism and the angle of the analyser to minimise the transmission, we found the transmission axis of the Polaroid analyser. We found the degree of polarisation of linearly polarised light using the set up in Figure 3, by rotating the analyser through 360 º and noting the transmitted intensity detected by the light detector and multi-meter in volts. Plotting the intensity as a function of angle and comparing it to a theoretical plot of transmission from Malus’ Law, we also found the angle at which the laser beam was polarised. Using the set up shown in Figure 4 we found the transmission axes of the quarter-wave plate. With the analyser set to an angle perpendicular to the angle of polarisation of the laser beam (i.e. a minimum intensity), transmitted intensity was measured for angles between 0 and 360 º of the quarter-wave plate. The minima of this dependence correspond to the transmission angles of the quarter-wave plate. Once the transmission axes were found, the quarter-wave plate was set to an angle of one of the transmission axes plus 45 º to give circularly polarised light. The intensity was measured as a function of the angle of the analyser. This was used to find the degree of polarisation of circularly polarised light by rotating the analyser through angles from 0 to 360 º. Finally we tested for a theoretical value of elliptical degree of polarisation of 0.65 by turning the quarter-wave plate 22.7 º past one of the transmission axes and once again rotating the analyser through 360 º and measuring intensities to give an experimental degree of polarisation. The error in the analyser angle and quarter-wave plate angle was determined by observing the range of angles over which the intensity did not change. This was  ±2 º in both cases, and when both the analyser and quarter-wave plate were on the optical bench this gave a combined error of  ±4 º. The ambient light reading was taken to eliminate a systematic error in intensity readings. This was found to be 0.00 V. Experimental Results The degree of polarisation of the analyser is 0.98 ±0.03 from the maximum and minimum intensities in Figure 5 and equation (2). The error comes from the uncertainty in the measurement of the intensity. The angle of polarisation of laser beam is 10 ±2 º. This was determined from the angle difference between the experimental data and the theoretical plot of Malus’ law. The error is given by the error in analyser angle. The transmission axis of the analyser runs from 170 º to 350 º  ±2 º, this is given by the maxima of the experimental data in Figure 5. The transmission axes of the quarter-wave plate are 20 ±4 º to 200 ±4 º and 110 ±4 º to 290 ±4 º from the minima in Figure 6, corrected for the angle of polarisation of the laser beam. The degree of polarisation of circularly polarised light is 0.18 ±0.03 from the maximum and minimum intensities in Figure 7. Theoretically the quarter-wave plate should be at one of its transmission axes plus 23 ±2 º for a degree of polarisation of 0.65. At this angle the experimental degree of polarisation was 0.59 ±0.03 from the maximum and minimum intensities in Figure 8. Discussion The error in the sensitivity of the polariser and quarter-wave plate are much greater than the accuracy of the scales on the polariser and quarter-wave plate. The errors are found to be  ±2 º for each, while the accuracy of the scale is  ±0.5 º. This is far too small because intensity did not change over such a small change in angle. One possible reason for such a large difference between theory and experimental values for degree of polarisation for the case of elliptical polarisation, 9.2%, is that the quarter-wave plate was designed to give a phase difference of Ï€/2 for a specific wavelength of light due to the dependence of refractive index on wavelength. The wavelength of our laser was not the same as this design. The difference could be reduced by using a more suitable laser or quarter-wave plate. The theoretical degree of polarisation for circular polarisation settings of the quarter-wave plate and analsyer is 0, compared to the 0.18 ±0.03 found experimentally. Similarly, the analyser was not ideal, imperfectly blocking components perpendicular to the transmission axis. The theoretical degree of polarisation for the analyser is 1, while experimentally we found it to be 0.98 ±0.03. The contribution to the error from the quarter-wave plate is therefore larger than that from the analsyer. There are two possible reasons for imperfect circular polarisation. The first of these is that the quarter-wave plate was set to the wrong angle, not at 45 º to a transmission axis. This would lead to an error in the degree of polarisation of approximately twice the error in the angle, or approximately 4. This is far too large for our degree of polarisation and therefore unlikely, since the difference between theory and experiment is only 0.18. The other reason is that the quarter-wave plate did not shift the phase of one component of polarisation by Ï€/2. Then the difference is approximately the difference between the theoretical phase difference and the actual phase difference. This is the more likely case, as discussed above, the quarter-wave plate is designed for a specific wavelength of light. Conclusions We investigated three types of polarisation of light using an analyser and a quarter-wave plate. We found degrees of polarisation for each type, and compared them to their theoretical values. This gave us an idea about the quality and suitability of the analyser and quarter-wave plate for our laser, with the quarter-wave plate contributing the largest amount to the difference between the theoretical and experimental polarisations. In the process of finding these values we also determined the transmission axes of the analyser and the of the quarter-wave plate. Appendix Derivation of the angel of the quarter-wave plate for degree of polarisation 0.65 From equation (2): , (3) , (4) From (3) and (4), , (5) where is the angle offset from the transmission axes of the quarter-wave plate and is the component of the electric field vector. This gives us, from equations (1) and (5), . (6) References [1]C. A. Skinner, The polarimeter and its practical applications, Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 196, pp. 721-750, 1923. [2]P. A. Tipler and G. Mosca, Physics for scientists and engineers : with modern physics, 2008. 1

Lillian Schwartz and Tracey Moffat - Modern Technology and Modern Art E

Lillian Schwartz and Tracey Moffat - Modern Technology and Modern Art Many modern artists use high technology equipment in their works. Whereas traditionally artists used a pencil or brush to make beautiful works of art, artists in the early twenty-first century are now using sound, video or computer generated images. Digital art developed from simple patterns and shapes made using computer programs to finished works of art which can look as realistic as a watercolour or oil painting. Modern art exhibitions often include more videos and installations than traditional painting or drawings. Even artists which use traditional techniques increasingly use modern technology such as the internet to display their works and communicate with other artists. Modern technology provides a means for artists to create works faster with more tools than ever before. I will be discussing the impact of some of these technologies in relation to the art of some modern artists. I will argue that modern technology such as the computer and video is another tool for an artist t o use in their work. I will especially focus on the video artwork of Tracey Moffat and the computer artwork of Lillian Schwartz as but two examples of artists today who use modern techniques. Moffat is an Australian contemporary artist who uses film extensively as an art-form, and many of her works are based on and reflect the modern technology of Hollywood movies and television. Schwartz is an artist who has a long history of using computer technology to experiment ways of creating and manipulating works of art. She has also written extensively about the topic of computer influence in art, and about art produced by computers. Modern technology is having a huge impact on rece... ....abc.net.au/rn/arts/atoday/stories/s229128.htm http://www.renaissancesociety.org/show/moffat/index.html http://gallery.discoverymedia.com.au/artzinePub/story.asp?id=219Â §ion=ExNews http://www.absolutearts.com/artsnews/2003/12/31/31676.html http://www.google.com.au/search?q=cache:zJNUDV3AGWUJ: www.afiresearch.rmit.edu.au/ bibliographies_pdfs/tracey_moffatt.pdf +tracey+moffat+video+artist&hl=en http://www.wmm.com/Catalog/_makers/fm253.htm http://www.lillian.com/reviews/ http://www.lillian.com/reviews/tv.html http://www.wmgallery.com/news/schwartz.html http://www.dam.org/schwartz/ http://www.baf.org.uk/2003/eventdetail.asp?ida=4164 http://www.avantofestival.com/2003/en/film_lillians.html http://www.hi-beam.net/fw/fw23/0218.html http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/lil/narr2000.html http://www.lumen.net/news/lillianschwartz.html